User:Phlsph7/Reality - Knowledge

Knowledge

Knowledge is an awareness or familiarity that shapes how individuals understand and engage with reality. It is a successful cognitive contact with reality, often associated with an accurate grasp of how things are and with having good reasons or justification for one's perspective.

Philosophers discuss various sources of knowledge as ways of how this cognitive contact is established, including perception, introspection, reason, memory, and testimony. Perception relies on sensory organs to acquire empirical information about the world, including vision and hearing. Introspection is an internal awareness of one's own mental states. Reason is the ability to draw logical inferences and arrive at truths independent of immediate sensory input. Memory is the capacity to store information from other sources and make it available to cognitive processes when needed. Testimony is a transmission of knowledge from one person to another through communication.

The scientific method is a rigorous approach to arrive at scientific knowledge. It involves the formulation of a hypothesis to explain a phenomenon and then testing it with empirical evidence from controlled experiments or observation. A central aspect is replicability: procedures should be documented so that other researchers can reproduce the investigation to verify or refute the original findings.

Direct and indirect realism are different ways of understanding the relation between the objects in perceptual experience and the physical objects causing them. According to direct realism, there is no essential difference: the experienced objects are the real objects, implying a direct connection between perception and reality. A challenge for direct realism comes from erroneous perceptions, such as illusions, in which experienced entities do not correspond to real ones. Indirect realism seeks to resolve this problem by distinguishing between the mental entities involved in perception and the physical entities that cause them. On this view, the connection is indirect: entities such as ideas or sense data exist as part of experience and represent or point to mind-independent objects. Indirect realism faces the challenge of explaining how a true contact with reality is possible if people only perceive an internal veil of ideas or sense data, which stands between the subject and external reality.

Limits and objectivity

Philosophers examine various limitations of knowledge or obstacles to the cognitive contact with reality. Some are situation-specific, involving information that is inaccessible. For example, certain facts about the past may be unknowable today because they left no traces, such as facts about what Caesar had for breakfast on the day he was assassinated. More general constraints arise from limits of human cognitive faculties rather than situation-specific circumstances, such as facts too complex for anyone to conceive. These limitations indicate a gap whereby reality is not fully captured and exceeds knowledge.

Another issue concerns the possibility of objectivity. For example, judgments based on measurements are typically considered objective, such as the claim that the temperature is 20°C, whereas evaluative personal assessments are often regarded as subjective, such as the claims that this temperature is chilly or pleasant. One approach, first formulated by John Locke, distinguishes between objective primary qualities and subjective secondary qualities. According to this view, primary qualities, like size and shape, are real features of objects themselves, while secondary qualities, like colors and smells, are experiences caused by primary features but exist only in the perceiver's mind. A different approach, inspired by Kantian philosophy, holds that all experienced phenomena are shaped by the innate structures of human cognition and cannot grasp the objective nature of the things in themselves. Defenders of objective knowledge often point to areas where there is broad intersubjective agreement among observers. Some interpretations of quantum mechanics question the objectivity of measurements on the microscopic scale. They assert that observations of quantum phenomena are influenced by measurement processes, challenging the idea of observer-independent knowledge.

Skepticism

The brain-in-a-vat thought experiment consider the possibility that all experiences are artificially generated through electrical brain stimulation, challenging the idea that people can know reality.

Skepticism is a family of views that question the possibility of knowledge. Some forms target specific domains of knowledge, such as religious skepticism, which denies that beliefs about God or other religious doctrines amount to knowledge. Moral skepticism is the view that there is no moral knowledge, for instance, that one cannot know whether a given behavior is morally right or wrong. Skepticism about metaphysics holds that it is not possible to know the fundamental nature of reality, such as claims about categories of being or the existence of universals.

Radical or global skepticism is the most far-reaching form of skepticism. It denies the existence of knowledge in any form or domain, arguing that knowledge is impossible. Although it is not a widely accepted position, various thought experiments undermining the reliability of human cognitive faculties are discussed in the academic literature. The dream argument asserts that a person can never be fully certain they are not currently dreaming, casting general doubt on the ability to distinguish reality from illusion at any moment. Similar ideas are explored in brain-in-a-vat scenarios, which consider the possibility that all experiences are artificially generated through electrical brain stimulation, and in the evil demon thought experiment, which imagines a god-like being able to intrude on a person's inner life to deceive them at every turn.

Augmented and virtual reality

While some skeptical scenarios use the idea of a simulated reality to challenge the reliability of human cognition, contemporary technologies such as augmented reality and virtual reality can also inform experience. Augmented reality encompasses devices that overlay digital information onto the physical world in real time. For example, it can take the form of wearable glasses that project navigational cues or contextual information into the field of vision. Virtual reality is further removed from the physical environment, immersing the user in a simulated setting, such as a video game world or a training simulation.

Reality–virtuality continuum

The reality–virtuality continuum is a theoretical framework that posits a continuous scale of mixed reality forms. For example, augmented reality devices may provide only sparse cues or overlay dense layers of digital content. Similarly, virtual reality worlds may incorporate real-world objects into the simulation or be entirely virtual.

Various philosophical problems are associated with the ontological status of virtual objects, such as a magic sword found inside a video game world. One perspective holds that such objects are illusory or unreal because they lack existence in the physical world outside the simulation. Another view maintains that they are real as digital objects with genuine existence and causal powers, residing within and being constituted by computational processes.

World views and theories of everything

A worldview is a comprehensive framework for understanding reality and humanity's place within it. It comprises beliefs, ideas, and attitudes that form a background against which people interpret experiences, make decisions, and navigate life. Accordingly, worldviews address not only theoretical matters but also practical and evaluative outlooks about what matters and how one should act. Different worldviews offer distinct answers to existential questions about meaning, morality, and the nature of reality, such as the contrast between religious and secular worldviews.

A theory of everything is a comprehensive explanatory scheme that integrates all knowledge into a consistent theoretical framework. Such theories aim at a unified explanation rather than a collection of isolated facts, for example, by identifying a limited number of basic constituents, categories, or principles as an explanatory basis of all phenomena. Philosophical theories of everything consider a wide range of phenomena from diverse domains, including the nature of matter and mind, mathematical truths, free will, moral obligations, and values. A key idea underlying this approach is to study the unrestricted whole by overcoming the boundaries of the restricted domains of other fields of inquiry, such as physics and psychology. In physics, the term theory of everything has a more specific meaning, denoting a framework that unifies quantum physics with the theory of relativity. The theory of relativity describes macroscopic reality and the nature of gravitation, while quantum physics describes microscopic reality and all known fundamental interactions except gravitation. Unification is required for areas where both domains overlap, such as black holes, for which strong gravitational fields influence quantum behavior.

References

Sources

• Bunge, Mario (2010). Matter and Mind: A Philosophical Inquiry. Springer. ISBN 978-90-481-9224-3.
• Wheeler, Tom (2020). Transformed Thinking: A Defense of the Christian Worldview, English Standard Version. Ambassador International. ISBN 978-1-62020-747-5.
• McIvor, David W. (2008). "Weltanschauung". In Darity, William A. (ed.). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (2nd ed.). Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-865965-7.
• Hunt, G. M. K. (1992). "Is Philosophy a 'Theory of Everything'?". Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement. 33: 219–231. doi:10.1017/S1358246100002368.
• White, Alan (2014). Toward a Philosophical Theory of Everything: Contributions to the Structural-Systematic Philosophy. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-62356-718-7.
• Søvik, Atle Ottesen (2022). A Basic Theory of Everything: A Fundamental Theoretical Framework for Science and Philosophy. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-077104-6.
• Stern, A. (2000). Quantum Theoretic Machines: What is thought from the point of view of Physics?. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-054013-9.
• Sanchez, N. (1992). "String Quantum Gravity and Black Holes". In Sabbata, Venzo De; Zhang, Zhenjiu (eds.). Black Hole Physics. Springer. pp. 359–380. ISBN 978-0-7923-1679-4.
• O'Brien, Daniel. "Perception, Objects of". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 26 June 2026.
• Mulder, Dwayne H. "Objectivity". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 26 June 2026.
• Brinkmann, Klaus (2010). Idealism Without Limits: Hegel and the Problem of Objectivity. Springer. ISBN 978-90-481-3622-3.
• Chalmers, David J.; McQueen, Kelvin J. (2022). "1. Consciousness and the Collapse of the Wave Function". In Gao, Shan (ed.). Consciousness and Quantum Mechanics. Oxford University Press. pp. 11–63. ISBN 978-0-19-750166-5.
• Heelan, Patrick A. (2012). Quantum Mechanics and Objectivity: A Study of the Physical Philosophy of Werner Heisenberg. Springer. ISBN 978-94-015-0831-5.
• Khan, Wasim Ahmed; Raouf, Abdul; Cheng, Kai (2011). Virtual Manufacturing. Springer. ISBN 978-0-85729-186-8.
• Ghaffar, Seyed Hamidreza; Mullett, Paul; Pei, Eujin; Roberts, John (2022). "1. What Is Industry 4.0?". In Ghaffar, Seyed Hamidreza; Mullett, Paul; Pei, Eujin; Roberts, John (eds.). Innovation in Construction: A Practical Guide to Transforming the Construction Industry. Springer Nature. pp. 3–26. ISBN 978-3-030-95798-8.
• Fernandes, Joshua (2023). "Reality+ – Virtual Worlds and the Problem of Philosophy". Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology. 23 (1). doi:10.1080/20797222.2024.2326227.
• Zagzebski, Linda (1999). "What Is Knowledge?". In Greco, John; Sosa, Ernest (eds.). The Blackwell Guide to Epistemology. Blackwell. pp. 92–116. doi:10.1002/9781405164863.ch3. ISBN 978-0-631-20290-5.
• Steup, Matthias; Neta, Ram (2024). "Epistemology". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 21 July 2020. Retrieved 12 July 2024.
• Crumley II, Jack S. (2009). An Introduction to Epistemology (2nd ed.). Broadview Press. ISBN 978-1-77048-156-5.
• Kern, Andrea (2017). Sources of Knowledge: On the Concept of a Rational Capacity for Knowledge. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-41611-6.
• Smith, Emmanuel (2023). "Doxastic Justification and Testimonial Beliefs". Episteme. 22: 179–192. doi:10.1017/epi.2023.49. ISSN 1750-0117.
• Hetherington, Stephen. "Knowledge". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
• Audi, Robert (2002). "The Sources of Knowledge". The Oxford Handbook of Epistemology. Oxford University Press. pp. 71–94. ISBN 978-0-19-513005-8.
• Audi, Robert (2006). "Testimony, Credulity, and Veracity". In Lackey, Jennifer; Sosa, Ernest (eds.). The Epistemology of Testimony. Clarendon Press. pp. 25–49. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199276011.003.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-153473-7.
• Gardiner, J. M. (2001). "Episodic Memory and Autonoetic Consciousness: A First-person Approach". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 356 (1413): 1351–1361. doi:10.1098/rstb.2001.0955. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 1088519. PMID 11571027.
• Dodd, Ashley C.; Zambetti, Benjamin R.; Deneve, Jeremiah (2023). "Scientific Method". Translational Surgery. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-323-90630-2.
• Hatfield, Gary (1998). "Scientific Method". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3.
• Hepburn, Brian; Andersen, Hanne (2021). "Scientific Method". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 26 February 2020. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
• Moser, Paul K. (2005). "13. Scientific Knowledge". The Oxford Handbook of Epistemology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-020818-9.
• Brown, Harold I. (1992). "Direct Realism, Indirect Realism, and Epistemology". Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 52 (2): 341–363. doi:10.2307/2107939. ISSN 1933-1592. JSTOR 2107939.
• Rescher, Nicholas (2009). Unknowability: An Inquiry into the Limits of Knowledge. Lexington books. ISBN 978-0-7391-3615-7.
• Rescher, Nicholas (2009a). Ignorance: On the Wider Implications of Deficient Knowledge. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0-8229-6014-0.
• Markie, Peter; Folescu, M. (2023). "Rationalism vs. Empiricism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 30 August 2006. Retrieved 29 February 2024.
• Cohen, Stewart (1998). "Scepticism". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-P045-1. ISBN 978-0-415-25069-6.
• Hookway, C. J. (2005). "Scepticism". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. pp. 838–840. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7.
• Moser, Paul K. (2011). "Religious Skepticism". In Greco, John (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Skepticism. Oxford University Press. pp. 200–224. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195183214.003.0010. ISBN 978-0-19-990985-8.
• Bergmann, Michael (2021). Radical Skepticism and Epistemic Intuition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-265357-4.
• Moreland, J. P.; Craig, William Lane (2003). Philosophical Foundations for a Christian Worldview. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-2694-0.
• Klein, Peter D. (1998). "Knowledge, Concept of". In Craig, Edward (ed.). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-P031-1. ISBN 978-0-415-25069-6.
• Putnam, Hilary (1999). "2. Brains in a Vat". In DeRose, Keith; Warfield, Ted A. (eds.). Skepticism: A Contemporary Reader. Oxford University Press. pp. 27–42. ISBN 978-0-19-511827-8.