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The history of communism[a] in Hungary spans from the revolutionary upheaval of 1918 to the peaceful democratic transition of 1989, encompassing two communist states, a prolonged Cold War dictatorship, and a unique experiment in market-oriented socialist reform. Hungary holds the distinction of having been the site of the world's second communist state after Soviet Russia, when the Hungarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed on 21 March 1919, just sixteen months after the Bolshevik revolution.[1] Although that republic lasted only 133 days before military defeat and internal collapse brought it down, the communist movement it represented survived in exile and re-emerged after the Second World War to establish the Hungarian People's Republic (1949–1989).[2]

The post-war communist state, first under the Stalinist dictatorship of Mátyás Rákosi and later under the comparatively liberal regime of János Kádár, was a satellite state of the Soviet Union and a member of the Warsaw Pact and Comecon.[2] The Hungarian Revolution of 1956, the largest single act of popular dissent in the history of the Eastern Bloc, was crushed by Soviet military intervention but ultimately precipitated Kádár's distinctive approach to communist governance, known as Goulash Communism, which combined party dictatorship with limited market reforms and greater personal freedoms than existed elsewhere in the Soviet bloc.[3] Hungary's transition to a multi-party democracy in 1989 was among the smoothest of any former communist state, culminating in the formal proclamation of the Republic of Hungary on 23 October 1989, the 33rd anniversary of the 1956 revolution.

Hungary after the First World War

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The collapse of Austria-Hungary

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Austria-Hungary's Habsburg monarchy collapsed in 1918, and the independent First Hungarian Republic was formed after the Aster Revolution. The official proclamation of the republic was on 16 November 1918, and the liberal Count Mihály Károlyi became its president. Károlyi yielded to US president Woodrow Wilson's demands for pacifism by ordering the unilateral disarmament of the Hungarian Army, under the direction of Minister of War Béla Linder, on 2 November 1918.[4] Hungary was thus left without national defence at a time of acute vulnerability, and during Károlyi's pacifist government, Hungary lost control over approximately 75% of its pre-war territory without armed resistance, as the armies of Romania, France-backed Serbia, and the newly established Czechoslovakia occupied its borderlands.[5]

Formation of the Communist Party

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Hungarian communist propaganda poster from 1919 reads: "To Arms! To Arms!"

An initial nucleus of the Party of Communists in Hungary was organised in a hotel in Moscow on 4 November 1918, when a group of former Hungarian prisoners of war and other communist proponents formed a Central Committee. Led by Béla Kun, the inner circle of the freshly established party returned to Budapest from Moscow on 16 November 1918.[6] On 24 November 1918, they formally created the Party of Communists in Hungary (Kommunisták Magyarországi Pártja, KMP). The name was chosen instead of the "Hungarian Communist Party" because the vast majority of the new party's supporters came from the urban industrial working class, which at the time was largely made up of people from non-Hungarian ethnic backgrounds.[7]

Béla Kun was the party's dominant personality. Born Béla Kohn on 20 February 1886 in the village of Lele, he had served in the Austro-Hungarian Army in the First World War, was captured by the Russian Imperial Army in 1916, and was sent to a prisoner-of-war camp in the Ural Mountains, where he embraced communist ideas. In March 1918, in Moscow, he co-founded the Hungarian Group of the Russian Communist Party with other former Hungarian prisoners of war.[8] He befriended Vladimir Lenin and fought for the Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War.

In Hungary, Kun immediately began a propaganda campaign against Károlyi's government, accusing it of betraying the working class. His aim was to copy Lenin's tactics: pandering to the demands of all the discontented in society, relentlessly denouncing the government, infiltrating trade unions, and dividing the moderate from the extreme leaders of the Social Democratic Party.[8] By February 1919, the party numbered between 30,000 and 40,000 members, including many unemployed ex-soldiers, young intellectuals, and ethnic minorities.[9] On 20 February 1919, a Communist demonstration turned violent, and the party's leaders including Kun were arrested and imprisoned; yet the popular sympathy generated by the arrests ultimately strengthened rather than weakened the party's standing.[8]

The Hungarian Soviet Republic (1919)

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Main article: Hungarian Soviet Republic

Proclamation

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Proclamation of the Hungarian Soviet Republic, 21 March 1919
The government of the Hungarian Soviet Republic from left to right: Sándor Garbai, Béla Kun, Vilmos Böhm, Tibor Szamuely, György Nyisztor, Jenő Varga, Zsigmond Kunfi, Dezső Bokányi, József Pogány, Béla Vágó, Zoltán Rónai, Károly Vántus, Jenő Landler, Béla Szántó, Sándor Szabados, György Lukács, Jenő Hamburger, Gyula Hevesi, and Antal Dovcsák.

On 20 March 1919, Károlyi received the Vix Note, a communication from Paris ordering Hungarian troops to withdraw further, which was widely understood to mean the new military lines would become the permanent postwar boundaries. Concluding that only the Social Democrats had sufficient public support to form a new government, Károlyi authorised their taking power. The Social Democrats then entered secret negotiations with the imprisoned KMP leaders and agreed to merge their two parties under the name of the Hungarian Socialist Party, a decision from which Károlyi was excluded.[10] On 21 March, Béla Kun and his fellow communists were released from prison, the Social-Democrat-Communist coalition proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic, and President Károlyi resigned.

The nominal leader of the Soviet Republic was Socialist chairman Sándor Garbai, but the de facto power was held by Kun as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs, as only Kun had the direct acquaintance and friendship with Lenin. He maintained contact with the Kremlin via radio communication.[1] Of the thirty-three People's Commissars of the Revolutionary Governing Council, fourteen were former Communists, seventeen were former Social Democrats and two had no party affiliation. Despite being outnumbered, the Communists claimed to represent the "dictatorship of the proletariat" and held real authority.[8]

Policies

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The new government decreed the abolition of aristocratic titles and privileges, the separation of church and state, freedom of assembly and speech, and free education with language and cultural rights for minorities.[9] It also nationalised industrial and commercial enterprises and socialised housing, transport, banking, medicine, cultural institutions, and all landholdings of more than 40 hectares. Despite its promises, the government chose not to redistribute land to the peasantry but instead converted all land to collective farms, retaining the former estate owners as new farm managers.[8] The Communists remained deeply unpopular in the countryside, where their authority was often nonexistent, while their chief support base was the proletarian masses of Budapest.[11]

A Red Guard was established under the command of Mátyás Rákosi, and a group of 200 armed men known as the Lenin Boys, under the leadership of József Cserny, formed a mobile detachment that deployed against suspected counter-revolutionary movements around the country. The Lenin Boys executed victims without trial, causing widespread fear and fatally alienating much of the population.[12] This campaign of terror was known as the Red Terror, and greatly reduced domestic support for the government even among the working classes of Budapest.[8]

Military campaigns and collapse

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Mass celebration of the Hungarian Red Army's march to Kassa (Košice) during the Hungarian–Czechoslovak War

In late May 1919, after the Entente military representative demanded further territorial concessions, Kun attempted to fulfil his promise of restoring Hungary's historical borders. Men of the Hungarian Red Army were recruited from volunteers in the Budapest proletariat. In June 1919, the Hungarian Red Army invaded the eastern part of the newly forming Czechoslovak state (today's Slovakia), achieving some early successes under Colonel Aurél Stromfeld, and on 16 June the Communists declared the establishment of the Slovak Soviet Republic in Prešov. However, nationalists and patriots in the Red Army soon realised that the new communist government had no intention of genuinely recapturing lost territories but was instead focused on spreading communist ideology, and Stromfeld resigned his post in protest.[13]

When the French promised that Romanian forces would withdraw from the Tiszántúl in exchange for Hungary's withdrawal from Upper Hungary, Kun complied, but the Romanian forces were not withdrawn. The Romanian Army broke through the weak lines of the Hungarian Red Army on 30 July 1919.[9] On 1 August 1919, Béla Kun, together with other high-ranking Communists, fled to Vienna, taking along art treasures and the gold stocks of the National Bank.[14] The Social-Democrat-Communist government was succeeded by an exclusively Social Democratic one on 1 August, and Romanian forces entered Budapest on 4 August.[15]

White Terror and aftermath

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In the power vacuum created by the fall of the Soviet Republic and the presence of the Romanian Army, semi-regular detachments nominally under Miklós Horthy's command initiated a campaign of violence against communists, leftists, and Jews, known as the White Terror. Many supporters of the Hungarian Soviet Republic were executed without trial; others were imprisoned.[16] About 415 prisoners were eventually released to the Soviet Union following a prisoner exchange agreement in 1921.[17]

Kun himself fled to Soviet Russia via Vienna, where he was put in charge of the Crimean Revolutionary Committee. In Crimea, following the defeat of the White Army under General Wrangel, Kun and Rosalia Zemlyachka oversaw the execution of an estimated 50,000 prisoners and civilians who had surrendered on promise of amnesty.[18] In March 1921, Kun was sent to Germany to advise the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and encouraged the theory of the offensive, helping to instigate the failed March Action.[19] Kun was executed during the Great Purge on 29 August 1938 at the Kommunarka shooting ground on charges of Trotskyism, and was posthumously rehabilitated in 1956.[20]

The interwar period and World War II

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Communism in exile

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The fall of the Soviet Republic was followed by a year-long anticommunist purge, the White Terror, during which anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people were killed, and thousands more imprisoned. Much of the KMP leadership was executed or exiled, primarily to Vienna, where remnants of the party's Central Committee, once again under Kun's leadership, attempted to maintain the party in illegal conditions.[21] Throughout the 1920s, many Hungarian Communists moved to Moscow, but Stalin's purges in the late 1930s took a catastrophic toll on the Hungarian emigre community, eliminating most of the old KMP leadership.[9]

The party also organised a legal cover party, the Socialist Workers Party of Hungary (MSzMP), as its representative in Hungary, but the Hungarian government soon abolished it and by 1927 it existed in name only. After the deadly derailment of a passenger train at Biatorbágy by Szilveszter Matuska in 1931, the government declared martial law and arrested suspected communists, including leading party members Imre Sallai and Sándor Fürst, who were executed the following year. The Comintern dissolved the KMP in 1936 in recognition of its effective destruction.[9]

World War II and the Communist takeover

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During the war, Hungarian Communists under János Kádár founded a new party, dubbed the Peace Party, as a replacement for the KMP. After Hungary's liberation by the Red Army in 1945, the party, now refounded as the Hungarian Communist Party (MKP), received 17 percent in free elections in 1945, equal to the Social Democrats but well behind the Smallholders Party, which won 57 percent. Despite this democratic result, the presence of the Red Army and control of the Interior Ministry gave the MKP decisive advantages.[22]

MKP Secretary-General Mátyás Rákosi implemented what he called "salami tactics", pressuring the non-Communist parties to push out their more courageous members as "fascists" or fascist sympathisers, gradually dismembering the opposition one slice at a time.[23] Communist Interior Minister László Rajk established the State Protection Authority (ÁVH) secret police to suppress political opposition through intimidation, false accusations, imprisonment, and torture.[24] In June 1948 the Communists forced the Social Democrats to merge with them to form the Hungarian Working People's Party (MDP), and at the elections of May 1949, voters were presented with a single Communist-dominated list. A new Soviet-style constitution was promulgated on 20 August 1949, and the country was renamed the "Hungarian People's Republic."[25]

The Hungarian People's Republic: the Stalinist era (1949–1956)

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Main article: Hungarian People's Republic

Rákosi's dictatorship

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Mátyás Rákosi addresses an audience in Budapest, 1948.

Rákosi demanded complete obedience from fellow members of the Hungarian Working People's Party and described himself as "Stalin's best Hungarian disciple."[26] His main rival for power was Foreign Secretary László Rajk, who was arrested and subjected to a show trial in September 1949 on fabricated charges of working for Trotsky, Tito, and Western imperialism, and was executed.[27] Even those who had helped Rákosi liquidate Rajk were not safe; future Hungarian leader János Kádár was himself purged during this period. During Kádár's interrogation, the ÁVH beat him, smeared him with mercury to prevent his skin pores from breathing, and subjected him to further degrading treatments.[28]

Rákosi's government collectivised agriculture, extracting profits from the country's farms to finance rapid expansion of heavy industry. The government rapidly expanded the education system in an attempt to replace the existing educated class with what Rákosi called a new "working intelligentsia," disseminating communist ideology in schools and universities while eliminating religious instruction. Cardinal József Mindszenty, who had actively opposed the Nazi government but supported the Horthy dictatorship, was arrested in December 1948, forced to confess to charges of treason after five weeks in custody, and condemned to life imprisonment.[25] Among the longest-serving leaders of the 20th century, Rákosi ruled Hungary as one of the harshest dictatorships in Europe during the early 1950s.[29]

After Stalin's death in 1953, the Soviet Union supported a change in leadership, and reformist communist Imre Nagy became Prime Minister. Nagy removed state control of the mass media, encouraged public debate on political and economic changes, released political prisoners, and promised increases in consumer goods production. Rákosi, however, retained his position as party general secretary and worked systematically to undermine Nagy. By 18 April 1955, under Soviet pressure, Nagy was dismissed from his post and Rákosi once again became the dominant figure in Hungary. Rákosi's power was in turn undermined by Nikita Khrushchev's "secret speech" denouncing Stalinism in February 1956, and on 18 July 1956 Rákosi was forced from power on Soviet orders and replaced by Ernő Gerő.[30]

The Hungarian Revolution of 1956

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Main article: Hungarian Revolution of 1956
The Hungarian flag with the 1949–1956 communist coat of arms cut out of it, the symbol of the 1956 uprising

On 13 October 1956, students at the University of Szeged re-established the banned democratic student union MEFESZ, and on 22 October, at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics, students proclaimed Sixteen Political, Economic, and Ideological Points against Soviet geopolitical hegemony over Hungary.[31] On 23 October 1956, approximately 20,000 protestors gathered at the statue of General Józef Bem. Gerő broadcast a hardline speech condemning the protesters; angered, some demonstrators demolished the Stalin Monument in Budapest and a crowd gathered outside the Magyar Rádió building, where the ÁVH opened fire. The Hungarian Revolution had begun.[32]

What followed was fifteen days of fighting. Workers' councils assumed government power across Hungary, the ÁVH was disbanded, and under Nagy, who was appointed prime minister on 24 October, the new government declared Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact and international neutrality. On 1 November Nagy formally declared Hungarian withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact and asked the United Nations to recognise Hungary as a neutral country.[33]

On 4 November 1956, Soviet defence minister Georgy Zhukov ordered the Red Army into Budapest. Operation Whirlwind, launched by Marshal Ivan Konev, deployed 17 divisions. Hungarian casualties totalled approximately 2,500 dead and 20,000 wounded; on the Soviet side, 699 were killed and 1,450 wounded. Approximately 200,000 Hungarians fled into exile.[34] Nagy was arrested, and after a secret trial, executed in June 1958 along with his co-defendant Pál Maléter.

The Hungarian People's Republic: the Kádár era (1956–1988)

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Kádárism and Goulash Communism

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Main article: Goulash Communism
János Kádár, General Secretary of the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party from 1956 to 1988

The Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party (MSZMP) was organised from elements of the Hungarian Working People's Party on 31 October 1956, with János Kádár as general secretary. Kádár's first task was repression: 21,600 dissidents were imprisoned, 13,000 interned, and approximately 350 executed. But by the early 1960s, Kádár announced a new governing philosophy under the motto "He who is not against us is with us," a deliberate inversion of Rákosi's slogan. He declared a general amnesty, curbed some of the excesses of the secret police, and initiated a relatively liberal cultural and economic course.[3]

The resulting system became known as Goulash Communism (Hungarian: gulyáskommunizmus), or Kádárism, named after the traditional Hungarian dish to evoke a mixed ideology no longer strictly adhering to Marxist-Leninist orthodoxy.[35] Hungary became the most consumption-oriented country of the Eastern Bloc, with the highest standard of living, earning it the reputation of being "the happiest barracks" of the Eastern Bloc during the 1960s and 1970s.[3]

In 1966, the Central Committee approved the "New Economic Mechanism", which eased foreign trade restrictions, gave limited freedom to the workings of the market, and allowed small businesses to operate in the services sector. Though liberal in comparison to Soviet socialism, these reforms stopped well short of threatening the party's political monopoly. The National Assembly continued to rubber-stamp decisions already made by the MSZMP leadership, and all prospective electoral candidates had to accept the programme of the communist-controlled Patriotic People's Front.[36]

The Hungarian People's Army

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Main article: Hungarian People's Army

The Hungarian People's Army (Hungarian: Magyar Néphadsereg, MN) was the military of the Hungarian People's Republic from 1951 to 1990 and the armed branch of the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party. It maintained close ties to the Warsaw Pact and other Eastern Bloc countries. Soviet influence over the Hungarian armed forces had begun to increase rapidly from November 1948, when hundreds of Soviet military advisers were assigned to the Hungarian army from the top down to the regimental level.[37] After the ÁVH was disbanded in 1956, the Hungarian revolution saw most of the HPA's equipment taken away by the Soviets and the Air Force dismantled. The HPA's only foreign combat operation was its contribution to the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, when the 8th Motor Rifle Division participated in the operation as Hungary bypassed parliamentary approval to take part.[38] The HPA was dissolved in 1989 and reconstituted as the Hungarian Defence Forces.

Economic stagnation and the limits of reform

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The New Economic Mechanism achieved a temporary rise in living standards throughout the 1960s and into the 1970s, but the 1973 oil crisis forced Hungary to draw increasing loans from Western countries to pay inflated oil prices, and by 1985 the standard of living had begun declining for the first time since the introduction of Goulash Communism.[39] Mounting foreign debt was incurred to subsidise unprofitable industries, while Hungary's manufacturing sector was largely unable to produce goods saleable on world markets. These economic stresses would prove fatal to the system in the late 1980s.

End of communist rule (1988–1989)

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Main article: End of communism in Hungary (1989)
Proclamation of the Republic of Hungary, 23 October 1989

Kádár finally retired in 1988 after being forced from office by pro-reform forces amidst the economic downturn, and was succeeded as General Secretary by Prime Minister Károly Grósz. But Grósz was rapidly eclipsed by a group of radical reformers who favoured establishing a market economy: Prime Minister Miklós Németh, Foreign Minister Gyula Horn, Rezső Nyers, and Politburo member Imre Pozsgay.[40]

On 28 January 1989, Pozsgay announced during a radio interview that the party's historical sub-committee regarded the events of 1956 as a "people's uprising" rather than a counter-revolution. This single announcement, not approved in advance by the Politburo, provoked escalating changes that, within nine months, resulted in the end of communist rule in Hungary.[40] In June 1989, the country ceremonially reburied Imre Nagy with full honours, symbolically closing the era inaugurated by the Soviet suppression of 1956.

In October 1989, Parliament adopted a package of nearly 100 constitutional amendments almost completely rewriting the 1949 constitution. The package changed Hungary's official name to the Republic of Hungary and transformed the country from a one-party Marxist-Leninist state into a multiparty democracy with guaranteed human and civil rights and separation of powers. On 7 October 1989, the MSZMP was dissolved and refounded as the Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP), a Western-style social democratic party.[40] On 23 October 1989, the 33rd anniversary of the revolution, the formal proclamation of the Republic of Hungary brought Hungary's communist era to a legal end.

Legacy

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The communist era in Hungary left a deeply divided legacy. The Stalinist period of 1949–1956 is broadly regarded as one of the harshest dictatorships in Central Europe: the ÁVH secret police subjected hundreds of thousands of Hungarians to investigation, imprisonment, and torture, and the forced collectivisation and emphasis on heavy industry at the expense of consumer goods produced severe economic hardship and popular misery.[41] The Kádár era presents a more ambiguous picture: Goulash Communism brought real improvements in living standards, a relatively open cultural environment, and a standard of living that was the highest in the Eastern Bloc, yet it was achieved under a system that retained a monopoly of political power, subjected the media to censorship, and required total submission to Soviet foreign policy direction.[3]

According to a 2020 poll conducted by Policy Solutions in Hungary, 54 percent of Hungarians said that most people had a better life under communism, while 31 percent said most people are better off now, reflecting the persistent ambivalence with which the communist period is remembered by Hungarian society.[42]

Hungary's transition to democracy in 1989 was among the smoothest of any former communist state. The Hungarian Socialist Party (the renamed MSZMP) went on to win free elections in 1994 and governed again in the 2000s, demonstrating that the transition produced genuine democratic competition rather than simply a change of party name. Rákosi's show trial victims, including László Rajk and Imre Nagy, were formally rehabilitated, and 23 October, the anniversary of the 1956 revolution, was declared a national holiday.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Hungarian: kommunizmus

References

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Citations

  1. ^ a b Völgyes 1970, p. 58
  2. ^ a b Rao, B. V. (2006), History of Modern Europe A.D. 1789–2002, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
  3. ^ a b c d Nyyssönen 2006, pp. 153–172
  4. ^ Dixon, John C. (1986). Defeat and Disarmament, Allied Diplomacy and Politics of Military Affairs in Austria, 1918–1922. Associated University Presses. p. 34.
  5. ^ "Trianon volt az utolsó csepp". VEOL (in Hungarian). 6 June 2016.
  6. ^ Mary Jo Nye (2011). Michael Polanyi and His Generation: Origins of the Social Construction of Science. University of Chicago Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-226-61065-8.
  7. ^ E. Raffay, Trianon Titkai (Secrets of Trianon), Szikra Press, Budapest 1990, p. 13.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Indelicato, Alberto (19 September 2017). "Two Italians Against Béla Kun". Hungarian Review. VIII (5).
  9. ^ a b c d e "Hungarian Soviet Republic". www.workmall.com. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
  10. ^ Borsanyi, Gyorgy, The life of a Communist revolutionary, Bela Kun, translated by Mario Fenyo. Social Science Monographs, Boulder, Colorado; Columbia University Press, New York, 1993, p. 178.
  11. ^ Robin Okey, Eastern Europe 1740–1985: Feudalism to Communism, Routledge, 2003, p. 162.
  12. ^ Kodolányi, János (1979). Süllyedő világ (in Hungarian). Budapest: Magvető. ISBN 978-963-270-935-2.
  13. ^ Sugar, Peter F.; Hanák, Péter; Frank, Tibor (1994). A History of Hungary. Indiana University Press. p. 308. ISBN 9780253208675.
  14. ^ "Find Red Leaders' Loot". The New York Times. 13 August 1919.
  15. ^ Balogh 1976, p. 15
  16. ^ ""White Terror" in Hungary 1919–1921". Armed Conflict Events Database. 16 December 2000.
  17. ^ "2000 – Bűn És Bűnhődés" (in Hungarian). Archived from the original on 30 May 2007.
  18. ^ Donald Rayfield, Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him. New York: Random House, 2004, p. 83.
  19. ^ Hallas, Duncan, The Comintern, Haymarket Books, 2008, pp. 62–64.
  20. ^ L.I. Shvetsova, et al. (eds.), Rasstrel'nye spiski: Moskva, 1937–1941. Moscow: Memorial Society, 2000, p. 229.
  21. ^ Kovrig, Bennett, Communism in Hungary: From Kun to Kádár, Hoover Institution Press, Stanford, 1979.
  22. ^ Norton, Donald H. (2002). Essentials of European History: 1935 to the Present, p. 47. REA: Piscataway, New Jersey.
  23. ^ Wettig 2008, p. 110
  24. ^ UN General Assembly Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary (1957), Chapter II.N, para 89(xi) (p. 31).
  25. ^ a b "1989. évi XXXI. törvény az Alkotmány módosításáról". Magyar Közlöny (in Hungarian). 44 (74): 1219. 23 October 1989.
  26. ^ Sugar, Peter F., Peter Hanak and Tibor Frank, A History of Hungary, Indiana University Press, 1994, pp. 375–377.
  27. ^ Crampton 1997, p. 263
  28. ^ Crampton 1997, p. 264
  29. ^ Granville, Johanna, The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956, Texas A&M University Press, 2004.
  30. ^ Litván 1996, p. 19
  31. ^ Crampton, R. J. (2003). Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century–and After, p. 295. Routledge: London.
  32. ^ UN General Assembly Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary (1957), Chapter II.C, para. 55–57 (p. 20).
  33. ^ UN General Assembly Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary (1957), Chapter VIII.D, para 336 (p. 103).
  34. ^ UN General Assembly Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary (1957), Chapter V.C, para 197 (p. 61).
  35. ^ Nyyssönen 2006, p. 153
  36. ^ Sebetsyen, Victor (2009). Revolution 1989: The Fall of the Soviet Empire. New York City: Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-375-42532-5.
  37. ^ Burant & Keefe 1990, pp. 230–231
  38. ^ Burant & Keefe 1990, p. 242
  39. ^ Benczes 2016, pp. 146–166
  40. ^ a b c "Cold War History Research Center, roundtable". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
  41. ^ Gati, Charles (2006). Failed Illusions: Moscow, Washington, Budapest and the 1956 Hungarian Revolt. Stanford University Press. p. 49. ISBN 0-8047-5606-6.
  42. ^ "30 Years On – Public Opinion on the Regime Change in Hungary" (PDF). Policy Solutions. May 2020.

Bibliography

Books

  • Borsányi, György (1993). The life of a communist revolutionary, Béla Kun. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs; distributed by Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-88033-260-6.
  • Burant, Stephen R.; Keefe, Eugene K., eds. (1990). Hungary: a country study. Area handbook series. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office.
  • Crampton, R. J. (1997). Eastern Europe in the twentieth century and after. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16422-2.
  • Gati, Charles (2006). Failed Illusions: Moscow, Washington, Budapest, and the 1956 Hungarian Revolt. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-5606-6.
  • Granville, Johanna (2004). The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 1-58544-298-4.
  • Király, Béla K.; Pastor, Peter (1988). War and Society in East Central Europe. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-08-80-33137-1.
  • Kovrig, Bennett (1979). Communism in Hungary: From Kun to Kádár. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press.
  • Lendvai, Paul (2008). One Day That Shook the Communist World: The 1956 Hungarian Uprising and Its Legacy. Princeton UP. ISBN 978-0-691-13282-2.
  • Litván, György (1996). The Hungarian Revolution of 1956: Reform, Revolt and Repression, 1953–1963. London: Longman. ISBN 978-0582215047.
  • Sebetsyen, Victor (2009). Revolution 1989: The Fall of the Soviet Empire. New York City: Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-375-42532-5.
  • Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-5542-6.
  • Völgyes, Iván (1971). Hungary in Revolution, 1918–1919: Nine Essays. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-08-03-20788-2.

Journal articles

  • Balogh, Eva S. (March 1976). "The Hungarian Social Democratic Centre and the Fall of Béla Kun". Canadian Slavonic Papers. 18 (1): 15–35. doi:10.1080/00085006.1976.11091436.
  • Benczes, István (26 February 2016). "From goulash communism to goulash populism: the unwanted legacy of Hungarian reform socialism". Post-Communist Economies. 28 (2): 146–166. doi:10.1080/14631377.2015.1124557.
  • Balogh, Eva S. (1975). "Romanian and Allied Involvement in the Hungarian Coup d'Etat of 1919". East European Quarterly. 9 (3): 297–314.
  • Bodo, Bela (October 2010). "Hungarian Aristocracy and the White Terror". Journal of Contemporary History. 45 (4): 703–724. doi:10.1177/0022009410375255.
  • Nyyssönen, Heino (1 June 2006). "Salami reconstructed". Cahiers du monde russe. 47 (1–2): 153–172. doi:10.4000/monderusse.3793.
  • Völgyes, Iván (1970). "The Hungarian Dictatorship of 1919: Russian Example versus Hungarian Reality". East European Quarterly. 1 (4).
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