30s

The 30s decade ran from January 1, AD 30, to December 31, AD 39.

Jesus was crucified early in the decade, an event generally accepted by historians; the understanding of his suffering and death as redemptive developed later as a central element of Christian teachings on salvation and atonement. Peter the Apostle founded the Church of Antioch. Anti-Jewish riots broke out in Alexandria. A financial crisis hit Rome in AD 33.

In Asia, the Western Satraps and Kushan Empire emerged. In Europe, the 30s saw a Dacian revolt against the Sarmatian tribe of Iazyges, who had enslaved them, and a Samaritan uprising. In west Asia, Artabanus II of Parthia fought a war with Rome over Armenia. The Han dynasty saw the outbreak of the Rebellion of Gongsun Shu. Roman emperor Tiberius died in AD 37, being succeeded by Caligula.

An earthquake that shook Antioch in AD 37 caused the emperor Caligula to send two senators to report on the condition of the city.^[1] In China, an epidemic broke out in K'aui-chi, causing many deaths, and Imperial official Ch'ung-li I (Zhongli Yi) provided medicine that saved many lives.^{[citation needed]}

Valerius Maximus wrote Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri IX: It is a collection of approximately a thousand short stories that Valerius wrote during the reign of Tiberius (42 BC – AD 37). Other literary works from the 30s include a popular collection of fables written by Phaedrus, a symbolic interpretation of the Old Testament (Allegory) written by Philo, and a general history of the countries known in Antiquity written by Velleius Paterculus.

Manning (2008) tentatively estimates the world population in AD 30 as 247 million.

Demographics

Due to lack of reliable demographic data, estimates of the world population in the 1st century vary wildly, with estimates for AD 1 varying from 150^[2] to 300^[3] million. Demographers typically do not attempt to estimate most specific years in antiquity, instead giving approximate numbers for round years such as AD 1 or AD 200. However, attempts at reconstructing the world population in more specific years have been made, with Manning (2008) tentatively estimating the world population in AD 30 as 247 million.^[4]

Events

30 AD

South Asia

The Kushan Empire is founded (approximate date).^{[citation needed]}

Roman Empire

Agrippina the Elder (the wife of Germanicus) and two of her sons, Nero Julius Caesar and Drusus Caesar, are arrested and exiled on orders of Lucius Aelius Sejanus (the prefect of the Praetorian Guard), and later starved to death in suspicious circumstances. In Sejanus's purge of Agrippina the Elder and her family, her son Caligula, and her three daughters, Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla are the only survivors.^[5]
Phaedrus translates Aesop's fables, and composes some of his own.^[6]
Velleius Paterculus writes the general history of the countries known in Antiquity.^{[citation needed]}

31 AD

Roman Empire

Lucius Aelius Sejanus is named co-Consul to Emperor Tiberius. However, Tiberius becomes aware of Sejanus' treachery and has him arrested and executed.^{[citation needed]}
Naevius Sutorius Macro becomes the leader of the Praetorian Guard after Sejanus is executed.^{[citation needed]}

32 AD

Egypt

Philo writes his symbolic interpretation of the Old Testament (Allegory).^{[citation needed]}

33 AD

Roman Empire

Emperor Tiberius founds a credit bank in Rome.^[7]
A financial crisis hits Rome, due to poorly chosen fiscal policies. Land values plummet, and credit is increased. These actions lead to a lack of money, a crisis of confidence, and much land speculation. The primary victims are senators, knights and the wealthy. Many aristocratic families are ruined.^[8]

China

Although the usurpation of Wang Mang and the Chimei Rebellion are behind him, Emperor Guangwu now faces a new threat to the Han dynasty: the Rebellion of Gongsun Shu in the Sichuan province. Gongsun's naval forces are unsuccessful against Han General Cen Peng, so Gongsun decides to fortify his position by blockading the entire Yangtze River with a large floating pontoon bridge, complete with floating fortified posts. After Cen Peng is unable to break through, he constructs several "castle ships" with high ramparts and ramming vessels known as "colliding swoopers", which break through Gongsun's lines and allow Cen to quell his rebellion. Gongsun Shu is totally defeated three years later.^{[citation needed]}

Palestine

According to Colin Humphrey's account, Jesus of Nazareth's Last Supper and crucifixion take place.^[9]^[10]

34 AD

Roman Empire

The Roman aqueduct Pont du Gard is constructed, running for 50 km, ending at Nîmes.^{[citation needed]}
Naevius Sutorius Macro gains favour in the Roman Empire by prostituting his wife Ennia Thrasylla to Caligula.^{[citation needed]}
Rome intervenes in Armenia (AD 34–37).^{[citation needed]}

Europe

The original inhabitants of Dacia revolt against the Sarmatian tribe of Iazyges, who had enslaved them.^{[citation needed]}
According to one dating scheme, Paul and Barnabas announce in Antioch that they will begin to evangelize the Gentiles.^{[citation needed]}

Palestine

Stephen, one of the original seven deacons of the Christian Church, is martyred for his faith (possible date).^{[citation needed]}

Syria

Saul of Tarsus, on the road to Damascus, is converted to Christianity, and becomes Paul the Apostle (possible date).^{[citation needed]}

35 AD

Roman Empire

Emperor Tiberius names Caligula (aka Gaius) and Gamellus, a grandson, as co-heirs.^[11]
Pliny the Elder is brought to Rome before this year.^{[citation needed]}

Persia

Tiridates III becomes king of Parthia (until AD 36).^{[citation needed]}

36 AD

China

December 25 – Wu Han commands the forces of Emperor Guang Wu of the Eastern Han to conquer the separatist Chengjia Empire, reuniting China.^[12]

Roman Empire

Pontius Pilate is recalled to Rome, after putting down a Samaritan uprising.^{[citation needed]}
Lucius Vitellius defeats Artabanus III of Parthia in support of another claimant to the throne, Tiridates III.^{[citation needed]}
Herod Antipas suffers major losses in a war with Aretas IV of Nabatea, provoked partly by Antipas' divorce of Aretas' daughter. According to Josephus, Herod's defeat was popularly believed to be divine punishment for his execution of John the Baptist. Emperor Tiberius orders his governor of Syria, Vitellius, to capture or kill Aretas, but he is reluctant to support Herod and abandons his campaign upon Tiberius' death in AD 37.^[13]

Palestine

Marcellus becomes governor of Judaea and Samaria.^{[citation needed]}

37 AD

Roman Empire

March 18 – The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius's will, and proclaims Caligula as Roman Emperor,^[14] nullifying the joint claim of Tiberius Gemellus. Caligula's attempt to have himself deified creates friction between himself and the Senate.^{[citation needed]}
October – Caligula becomes seriously ill, or perhaps is poisoned. He recovers from his illness, but Caligula turns toward the diabolical: he starts to kill off those who are close to him, whom he sees as a serious threat.^{[citation needed]}
Abilene is granted to King Agrippa I.^{[citation needed]}

Anatolia

Peter the Apostle founds the Church of Antioch (approximate date).^{[citation needed]}
April 9 – An earthquake destroys Antioch.^[15]
The Pharisee Saul of Tarsus is converted to Christianity, after a vision (possible date). After the year 39, he is recognised as Saint Paul.^{[citation needed]}

38 AD

Roman Empire

Claudius and Messalina are most likely married at this point in time.
Apion heads a deputation to Emperor Caligula, to complain about the Jews in Alexandria.
Phaedrus writes his popular collection of fables.

Egypt

An anti-Jewish riot breaks out in Alexandria, during a visit by King Herod Agrippa I; the mob wants to place statues of Caligula in every synagogue.

Anatolia

Andrew the Apostle becomes the first patriarch of Constantinople, and resigns that position shortly thereafter (traditional date).
Stachys the Apostle becomes the second patriarch of Constantinople (traditional date).

China

An epidemic breaks out in K'aui-chi, causing many deaths. Imperial official Ch'ung-li I provides medicines that save many lives.^{[citation needed]}

39 AD

Roman Empire

Tigellinus, minister and favorite of the later Roman emperor Nero, is banished for adultery with Caligula's sisters.^{[citation needed]}
Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (Caligula) and Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo become Roman consuls.^{[citation needed]}
Caligula orders a floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for two miles from Baiae to the neighboring port of Puteoli.^{[citation needed]}
Philo leads a Jewish delegation to Rome to protest the anti-Jewish conditions in Alexandria.^{[citation needed]}

Germania

Legio XV Primigenia and XXII Primigenia are levied by Caligula for the German frontier.^{[citation needed]}
Caligula's campaign into Germany is stopped by a conspiracy led by Cassius Chaerea. Even though he never even reaches Germany, Caligula proclaims himself victorious and orders a triumph.^{[citation needed]}

Palestine

Agrippa I, king of Judaea, successfully accuses Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, of conspiracy against Caligula. Antipas is exiled and Agrippa receives his territory.^[16]
Caligula orders that a statue of himself be placed in the Temple in Jerusalem. The governor of Syria, Publius Petronius, who is responsible for having an erecting the statue, faces mass demonstrations by Jews of the region and manages to delay construction of the statue until the death of Caligula in AD 41.^{[citation needed]}

Vietnam

The Trung Sisters resist the Chinese influences in Vietnam.^{[citation needed]}

Significant people

Guangwu, Emperor of China (25-57)
Pharasmanes I, King of Caucasian Iberia (1-58)
Feradach Finnfechtnach, Legendary High King of Ireland (14-36)
Fíatach Finn, Legendary High King of Ireland (36-39)
Fíachu Finnolach, Legendary High King of Ireland (39-56)
Suinin, Legendary Emperor of Japan (29 BC–AD 70)
Heraios, Yuezhi Tribal leader of the Kushans (c.1-30)
Kujula Kadphises, King (and founder) of the Kushan Empire (30-80)
Abgar V of Edessa, King of Osroene (4 BC–AD 7, 13–50)
Artabanus III, King of the Parthian Empire (10-35, 36-40)
Tiridates III, King of the Parthian Empire (35-36)
Tiberius, Roman Emperor (AD 14–37)
Gaius Caesar Germanicus/Caligula, Roman Emperor (AD 37–41)
Claudius, statesman, Consul, and future Roman Emperor, in office (as Consul) 37
Jesus Christ, founding figure of Christianity, (ca. 4 BC–ca. AD 33)
Andrew the Apostle, Apostle and first Bishop of Byzantium (c.38)
Mark the Evangelist, Apostle and first Coptic Pope of Alexandria (c.43-68)
Paul the Apostle, Apostle and Theologian (c.5-64)
Saint Peter, Apostle and first Bishop of Rome (c.30-c.64)
Thomas the Apostle, Apostle and first Patriarch of the East (c.33-c.72)
Yuri, King of Silla (24-57)

Births

30 AD

November 8 – Nerva, Roman emperor (d. AD 98)^{[citation needed]}
Jia Kui, Chinese Confucian philosopher (d. AD 101)^{[citation needed]}
Mobon of Goguryeo, Korean king (d. AD 53)^{[citation needed]}
Poppaea Sabina, second wife of Nero (d. AD 65)^[17]
Quintus Petillius Cerialis, Roman general^{[citation needed]}

31 AD

Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus, Roman consul^{[citation needed]}
Musonius Rufus, Roman Stoic philosopher (d. 101)^{[citation needed]}

32 AD

28 April – Marcus Salvius Otho, Roman emperor (d. AD 69)^{[citation needed]}
Ban Chao, Chinese general and diplomat (d. 102)^[18]
Ban Gu, Chinese historian and politician (d. AD 92)^[19]

37 AD

December 15 – Nero, Roman emperor^[21] (d. 68 AD)
Josephus, Romano-Jewish historian^[22] (d. c. 100 AD)

38 AD

Drusilla, Jewish princess and daughter of Herod Agrippa I (d. AD 79)^{[citation needed]}
Drusilla, princess of Mauretania^{[citation needed]}
Julius Archelaus Antiochus, prince of Commagene (d. AD 92)^{[citation needed]}
Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus, Roman co-emperor (d. AD 69)^{[citation needed]}
Marcus Valerius Martialis, Roman Latin poet (approximate date)^{[citation needed]}

39 AD

November 3 – Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, Roman poet (d. AD 65)^{[citation needed]}

December 30 – Titus Flavius, Roman emperor (d. AD 81)^[23]
Julia Drusilla, daughter of Caligula (d. AD 41)^{[citation needed]}

Deaths

31 AD

April 6 – Jesus of Nazareth (possible date of the crucifixion)^[24]^[25]^[26] (born circa 4 BC) The other possible dates also supported by scholarly consensus among a survey of 100 published scholarly biblical statements are April 7, AD 30 and April 3, AD 33,^[26]^[27] and April 27, AD 31 (according to a Chodesh calculating system).^[28]
October 18 – Lucius Aelius Sejanus, Roman prefect and advisor (b. 20 BC)^{[citation needed]}
Claudia Livia Julia, niece and daughter-in-law of Tiberius (b. 13 BC)^[29]
Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Roman historian and writer (b. c. 19 BC)^{[citation needed]}
Nero Julius Caesar Germanicus, grandson and heir of Tiberius (b. AD 6)^{[citation needed]}

32 AD

Cassius Severus, Roman rhetor and writer^[30]
Decimus Haterius Agrippa, Roman consul^{[citation needed]}
Lucius Calpurnius Piso, Roman consul (b. 48 BC)^{[citation needed]}
John the Baptist, religious figure in Christianity, Islam, and other Abrahamic religions^{[citation needed]}

33 AD

Jesus of Nazareth (possible date of the crucifixion)^[24]^[25]^[26] The other possible dates supported by a number of scholars are April 7, AD 30 and April 6, AD 31.^[31]
Agrippina the Elder, daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, wife of Germanicus (suicide by starvation;^[32] b. 14 BC)
Drusus Caesar, son of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder, adoptive son of Tiberius (starvation;^[33] b. AD 8)
Gaius Asinius Gallus, widower of Vipsania Agrippina and alleged lover of Agrippina the elder (starvation)^[34]
Lucius Aelius Larnia, Roman consul, governor and praefectus urbi in Rome (b. 45 BC)^{[citation needed]}
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Roman consul and father-in-law of Drusus Caesar (natural causes;^[35] b. 30 BC)
Marcus Cocceius Nerva, Roman jurist (suicide by starvation; b. 5 BC)^{[citation needed]}
Munatia Plancina, wife of Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso (suicide)^{[citation needed]}

34 AD

Artaxias III, Roman client king of Armenia (b. 13 BC)^{[citation needed]}
Philip the Tetrarch, Jewish ruler of Batanaea^{[citation needed]}
Stephen, Jewish martyr of Christianity (stoned to death)^{[citation needed]}

35 AD

Arsaces I (or Arshak I), Roman client king of Armenia^{[citation needed]}
Epaticcus, British prince of the Catuvellauni (approximate date)^{[citation needed]}
Gaius Poppaeus Sabinus, Roman statesman and consul^{[citation needed]}
Lucius Fulcinius Trio, Roman senator and suffect consul^{[citation needed]}
Phraates, Parthian prince and son of Phraates IV^{[citation needed]}

36 AD

December 24 – Gongsun Shu, Chinese emperor of Chengjia^{[citation needed]}
Gaius Sulpicius Galba, Roman senator and consul^{[citation needed]}
Thrasyllus of Mendes, Greek grammarian and astronomer^{[citation needed]}
Vibulenus Agrippa, Roman nobleman and knight (eques)^{[citation needed]}

37 AD

March 16 – Tiberius, Roman emperor^[36] (b. 42 BC)
May 1 – Antonia the Younger, daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia the Younger^[37] (b. 36 BC)

Lucius Arruntius (the Younger), Roman politician^{[citation needed]}
Marcus Junius Silanus, Roman politician (b. c. 26 BC)^{[citation needed]}

Maroboduus, king of the Marcomanni (b. c. 30 BC)^{[citation needed]}

38 AD

June 10 – Julia Drusilla, sister of Caligula (b. AD 16)^[38]
Archelaus of Cilicia, Roman client king^{[citation needed]}
Du Shi, Chinese inventor and politician^{[citation needed]}
Ennia Thrasylla, Roman noblewoman^{[citation needed]}
Naevius Sutorius Macro, Roman prefect (b. 21 BC)^{[citation needed]}
Rhoemetalces II, Roman client king^{[citation needed]}
Tiberius Gemellus, grandson of Tiberius (b. AD 19)^{[citation needed]}
Tiberius Julius Aspurgus, Roman client king^{[citation needed]}

39 AD

Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, Roman consul^{[citation needed]}
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Roman politician (b. AD 6)^{[citation needed]}
Seneca the Elder, Roman rhetorician (approximate date)^{[citation needed]}

References

^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Rockwell, William Walker (1911). "Antioch". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 130–132.
^ John H. Tanton, 1994, "End of the Migration Epoch? Time For a New Paradigm", The Social Contract, Vol. 4 (no 3), pp. 162–173.
^ Haub (1995): "By 1 A.D., the world may have held about 300 million people. One estimate of the population of the Roman Empire, from Spain to Asia Minor, in 14 A.D. is 45 million. However, other historians set the figure twice as high, suggesting how imprecise population estimates of early historical periods can be."
^ Manning, Scott (2008-01-12). "Year-by-Year World Population Estimates: 10,000 B.C. to 2007 A.D." Historian on the Warpath. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius, pp. 53–54.
^ "Phaedrus Biography - eNotes.com". eNotes. Retrieved 2018-01-11.
^ Harris, W. V. (2011). Rome's Imperial Economy: Twelve Essays. Oxford University Press. p. 238. ISBN 978-0-19-959516-7.
^ Thornton, M. K.; Thornton, R. L. (1990). "The Financial Crisis of A.D. 33: A Keynesian Depression?". The Journal of Economic History. 50 (3): 655–662. doi:10.1017/S0022050700037207. ISSN 0022-0507. JSTOR 2122822. S2CID 154785575.
^ Humphreys, Colin J. (2011). The Mystery of the Last Supper. Cambridge University Press. pp. 77 and 189. ISBN 978-0521732000.
^ "Last Supper 'was on a Wednesday'". United Kingdom: BBC. April 18, 2011.
^ "Tiberius (42 BC-37AD". BBC. Retrieved February 20, 2024.
^ de Crespigny, Rafe (2006). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). BRILL. p. 270. ISBN 978-90-474-1184-0.
^ Josephus, Antiquities_of_the_Jews 18.113–126; Bruce, F. F. (1963–1965). "Herod Antipas, Tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea" (PDF). Annual of Leeds University Oriental Society. 5: 6–23, pp. 17–18. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2007-10-21.
^ Bowman, Alan K.; Champlin, Edward; Lintott, Andrew (1996). The Cambridge ancient history: The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C.–A.D. 69. Cambridge University Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-521-26430-3.
^ Downey, Glanville (1961). A history of Antioch in Syria: from Seleucus to the Arab conquest. Princeton University Press. p. 190.
^ Josephus, Antiquities_of_the_Jews 18.247–252; Bruce, F. F. (1963–1965). "Herod Antipas, Tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea" (PDF). Annual of Leeds University Oriental Society. 5: 6–23, p. 21. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2007-10-21.
^ Johnson, Marguerite (2012). Boudicca. A&C Black. p. 13. ISBN 9781853997327.
^ Dillon, Michael; Dillon, Michael O. (1998). China: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. Psychology Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-7007-0439-2.
^ Dillon, Michael; Dillon, Michael O. (1998). China: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. Psychology Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-7007-0439-2.
^ Tacitus, Annals, pp. 413
^ Morgan, Julian (2002). Nero: Destroyer of Rome. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-8239-3596-3.
^ Josephus, Flavius (2001). Mason, Steve (ed.). Flavius Josephus: translation and commentary. Brill. p. 9. ISBN 978-90-04-11793-8.
^ "BBC - History - Historic Figures: Titus (39 AD - 81 AD)". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 7 April 2019.
^ ^a ^b Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, "Dating the Crucifixion ," Nature 306 (December 22/29, 1983), pp. 743-46. [1]
^ ^a ^b Colin_Humphreys, The Mystery of the Last Supper (Cambridge: University Press, 2011) ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, p. 194
^ ^a ^b ^c Blinzler, J. Der Prozess Jesu, fourth edition, Regensburg, Pustet, 1969, pp. 101-126
^ Colin Humphreys, The Mystery of the Last Supper (Cambridge: University Press, 2011) ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, pp. 14 & 62
^ http://www.snoaktrua.fyi/moon/finding-the-historical-crucifixion-date.shtml
^ Vagi, David (2016). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire. Routledge. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-135-97125-0.
^ Cramer, Frederick H. (1945). "Bookburning and Censorship in Ancient Rome: A Chapter from the History of Freedom of Speech" (PDF). Journal of the History of Ideas. 6 (2): 157–196 (173). doi:10.2307/2707362. ISSN 0022-5037. JSTOR 2707362. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
^ Rainer Riesner, Paul's Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1998), page 58.
^ Salisbury, Joyce E. (2001). Encyclopedia of women in the ancient world. ABC-CLIO. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-57607-092-5.
^ Fantham, Elaine (2006). Julia Augusti: The Emperor's Daughter. Taylor & Francis. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-415-33145-6.
^ Bunson, Matthew (2002). Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire (2nd ed.). Infobase Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-8160-4562-4.
^ Hazel, John (2002). Who's who in the Roman world (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-415-29162-0.
^ Bowman, Alan K.; Champlin, Edward; Lintott, Andrew (1996). The Cambridge ancient history: The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C.–A.D. 69. Cambridge University Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-521-26430-3.
^ Kokkinos, Nikos (1992). Antonia Augusta: portrait of a great Roman lady. Routledge. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-415-08029-3.
^ Vagi, David (2016). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire. Routledge. p. 125. ISBN 978-1-135-97125-0.

External links

Media related to 30s at Wikimedia Commons

[1] This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Rockwell, William Walker (1911). "Antioch". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 130–132.

[thesocialcontract.com-2] John H. Tanton, 1994, "End of the Migration Epoch? Time For a New Paradigm", The Social Contract, Vol. 4 (no 3), pp. 162–173.

[3] Haub (1995): "By 1 A.D., the world may have held about 300 million people. One estimate of the population of the Roman Empire, from Spain to Asia Minor, in 14 A.D. is 45 million. However, other historians set the figure twice as high, suggesting how imprecise population estimates of early historical periods can be."

[4] Manning, Scott (2008-01-12). "Year-by-Year World Population Estimates: 10,000 B.C. to 2007 A.D." Historian on the Warpath. Retrieved 2023-03-05.

[5] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius, pp. 53–54.

[6] "Phaedrus Biography - eNotes.com". eNotes. Retrieved 2018-01-11.

[7] Harris, W. V. (2011). Rome's Imperial Economy: Twelve Essays. Oxford University Press. p. 238. ISBN 978-0-19-959516-7.

[8] Thornton, M. K.; Thornton, R. L. (1990). "The Financial Crisis of A.D. 33: A Keynesian Depression?". The Journal of Economic History. 50 (3): 655–662. doi:10.1017/S0022050700037207. ISSN 0022-0507. JSTOR 2122822. S2CID 154785575.

[humphreyssupper-9] Humphreys, Colin J. (2011). The Mystery of the Last Supper. Cambridge University Press. pp. 77 and 189. ISBN 978-0521732000.

[bbcsupper-10] "Last Supper 'was on a Wednesday'". United Kingdom: BBC. April 18, 2011.

[BBC-11] "Tiberius (42 BC-37AD". BBC. Retrieved February 20, 2024.

[Crespigny2006-12] Crespigny, Rafe (2006). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). BRILL. p. 270. ISBN 978-90-474-1184-0.

[13] Josephus, Antiquities_of_the_Jews 18.113–126; Bruce, F. F. (1963–1965). "Herod Antipas, Tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea" (PDF). Annual of Leeds University Oriental Society. 5: 6–23, pp. 17–18. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2007-10-21.

[cambridge-14] Bowman, Alan K.; Champlin, Edward; Lintott, Andrew (1996). The Cambridge ancient history: The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C.–A.D. 69. Cambridge University Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-521-26430-3.

[15] Downey, Glanville (1961). A history of Antioch in Syria: from Seleucus to the Arab conquest. Princeton University Press. p. 190.

[16] Josephus, Antiquities_of_the_Jews 18.247–252; Bruce, F. F. (1963–1965). "Herod Antipas, Tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea" (PDF). Annual of Leeds University Oriental Society. 5: 6–23, p. 21. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2007-10-21.

[17] Johnson, Marguerite (2012). Boudicca. A&C Black. p. 13. ISBN 9781853997327.

[Dillon-18] Dillon, Michael; Dillon, Michael O. (1998). China: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. Psychology Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-7007-0439-2.

[Dillon2-19] Dillon, Michael; Dillon, Michael O. (1998). China: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. Psychology Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-7007-0439-2.

[20] Tacitus, Annals, pp. 413

[21] Morgan, Julian (2002). Nero: Destroyer of Rome. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-8239-3596-3.

[22] Josephus, Flavius (2001). Mason, Steve (ed.). Flavius Josephus: translation and commentary. Brill. p. 9. ISBN 978-90-04-11793-8.

[23] "BBC - History - Historic Figures: Titus (39 AD - 81 AD)". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 7 April 2019.

[nature.com31-24] Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, "Dating the Crucifixion ," Nature 306 (December 22/29, 1983), pp. 743-46. [1]

[Humphreys2011-25] Colin_Humphreys, The Mystery of the Last Supper (Cambridge: University Press, 2011) ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, p. 194

[WPCleanerAuto1-26] Blinzler, J. Der Prozess Jesu, fourth edition, Regensburg, Pustet, 1969, pp. 101-126

[Humphreys2011p14-27] Colin Humphreys, The Mystery of the Last Supper (Cambridge: University Press, 2011) ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, pp. 14 & 62

[28] ttp://www.snoaktrua.fyi/moon/finding-the-historical-crucifixion-date.shtml

[29] Vagi, David (2016). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire. Routledge. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-135-97125-0.

[30] Cramer, Frederick H. (1945). "Bookburning and Censorship in Ancient Rome: A Chapter from the History of Freedom of Speech" (PDF). Journal of the History of Ideas. 6 (2): 157–196 (173). doi:10.2307/2707362. ISSN 0022-5037. JSTOR 2707362. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.

[Rainer_Riesner_1998_page_58-31] Rainer Riesner, Paul's Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1998), page 58.

[32] Salisbury, Joyce E. (2001). Encyclopedia of women in the ancient world. ABC-CLIO. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-57607-092-5.

[33] Fantham, Elaine (2006). Julia Augusti: The Emperor's Daughter. Taylor & Francis. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-415-33145-6.

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